When we talk about translation, we generally think of the lexicon, that is, the ability to find the appropriate meaning for a word, an expression or a sentence in another language. But what about the syntax? Translators often overlook syntactic aspects when translating, when in fact syntax is the backbone of the body of a text. Thus, although syntax can often express the essence of the style of a text, it is not always taken into account, because we do not put as much effort into its translation as we do into its meaning.
Morphology and syntax: two disciplines of grammar
First of all, we must talk about grammar, which is the part of linguistics that studies the structure of words and the way in which they are combined to form sentences. Within grammar, two main branches can be distinguished: morphology and syntax. These often appear together, as we tend to talk about the ‘morphosyntactic’ aspects of a text. However, it should be noted that these are different disciplines.
Thus, while morphology studies the internal structure of words and their formation, i.e., the rules governing the inflection, composition and derivation of words, syntax, on the other hand, focuses on the way in which the different structures and linguistic units are combined, focusing on the function they play within the sentence. Unlike morphology, where the word is conceived as an isolated unit, syntax studies the hierarchical relationships that are established between the constituting elements of the sentence.
The syntax of discourse
Within syntax, a very important aspect that all self-respecting translators must pay attention to is discourse syntax, i.e. the study of the structures and rules that regulate the organization of sentences within the discourse through the use of discourse particles or connectors, voice alternations, verb tenses, etc.; in short, all those relevant aspects that contribute to the cohesion of the text. In this sense, a good knowledge of the syntax of discourse in the target language can be the element that really determines whether the translation looks natural to the eyes of a native reader, hence the importance of paying attention to all these issues.
Independent sentences: arguments and adjuncts
The independent sentence can be defined as the predicative structure capable of constituting a complete message or statement. From the point of view of content, an utterance is the minimum linguistic unit of communication.
On the other hand, from the grammatical point of view, a predicative structure is composed of a predicate (usually a verb or verb form, although not exclusively) and those elements that depend on it.
These elements may be obligatory or optional. When they are obligatory, we speak of arguments, and when they are optional, we refer to attachments. For example:
- A Direct Complement will always be an argument, since it is necessary information for the sentence to make sense: The child eats bread.
- A Circumstantial Complement, on the other hand, will always be an adjunct, since the information it provides is not necessary: The child eats bread in the bar.
The following must be taken into account: every sentence has a predicative structure, but not all predicative structures are independent sentences; to be so, they need to constitute a complete statement, i.e., one with meaning.
The complex sentence: juxtaposition, coordination and subordination
In syntax, ‘complex sentences’ are defined as those statements or sentences consisting of various predications. There are several types of complex sentences, as we will see next.
In cases of juxtaposition or parataxis, the two sentences are at the same level of hierarchy and are associated only by their continuity and by their relationship of content. In parataxis there is no integration, but rather an association of independent sentences. For example:
It quickly dissolves the meeting, retains the legatees.
On the other hand, coordination is a procedure of expansion of constituents, predicates or sentences, by means of conjunctions, which allows to join elements of the same rank; the relation established by this procedure is the same as that of juxtaposition, but with an explicit grammatical nexus: the coordinating conjunctions. For example:
The children play in the park and the parents chat on the benches.
There are several types of coordinated sentences:
- Copulatives: they indicate addition or negation of the contents expressed in the sentences. The conjunction and is usually used.
- Disjunctive: these generally indicate several opposite options. The conjunction or is used.
- Adversatives: this type is used when the second part of the sentence introduces some kind of opposition to what is stated or suggested in the first one. The conjunction but is generally used, although there are others (although, however…).
- Distributives: alternation between the actions expressed in the sentences is proposed. For example: Already they were deciding to stay, already they were choosing to leave.
- Explicatives: this type of coordination occurs when one of the two statements provides an explanation of the other. For example: They are a champion, that is, they no longer need anyone to help them.
Finally, subordination involves the integration of one of the sentences, the subordinate one, into the main sentence. The subordinate clause, therefore, depends on the main clause, and cannot exist in isolation. Depending on the syntactic function of the subordinate clause in the main sentence, we can distinguish between completives or substantives, when they function as an argument (either as Subject, Direct Complement…); adjectives or relative clauses, when they serve as a modifying element of the main sentence, fulfilling a function similar to that of an adjective; and adverbials, which are those that indicate the circumstances in which the action of the main sentence occurs, thus functioning as an adjunct. Adverbial subordinates may be temporary, local, modal, causal, consequential, etc.
In view of this, and taking into account the different types of modalities that we can find when analyzing a complex sentence, it will be much easier for the translator to find a way to translate the syntactic structures from one language to another. Because, if the text being translated is not understood internally, it is very likely that the translation will not be as faithful to the original.
Carlos Sánchez Luis